5. Improving Intercultural Communication

5. Realia in literary translation

 

5.1. Strategy

 

            "In the modern world, distances between different countries are getting shorter every day, and cultures have more and more contact with each other. Intercultural communication benefits from knowledge and understanding of the other's cultural features and peculiarities, and one good way of getting a deeper insight into a foreign culture is through its literature" (Lindfors 1).

"Two radically different approaches were adopted by Vladimir Nabokov and Boris Pasternak. Nabokov produced a four-volume literal version of Pushkin's Eugene Anegin (1964) in which slightly more than 200 pages of translated text are accompanied by more than 1200 pages of commentary and notes." Contrary to this, Nabokov's Russianized early translations: William the Conqueror is replaced by the medieval Grand Prince of Kiev, Vladimir Monomakh; pounds are converted to roubles (see Coates 1999, 93).  (M. Holman, J. Boase-Beier. 1999, 9) For the completeness of connotation he sacrificed the beauty and grace of form. "Pasternak, in his translations of Shakespeare, adopts an approach diametrically opposed to that of Nabokov. (...) Pasternak ... assimilated Shakespeare's originals in their totality, re-creating them (bolds are mine - E. L.) as new poetry without massive externally appended exegesis. This was still Shakespeare, but Pasternak's Russian Shakespeare..." (ibid)

 

5.2. Tactics

 

            Treatment of culture-bound words. Authors use culture-bound words "to give local colour to the text" (Lindfors 3). Lindfors and others claim, that the use of loanwords (by transference) "preserves the exotic feeling of the source text and thus contributes to a foreignized target text" (Lindfors, ibid). We disagree with this idea, since in the source text, better to say, in source text readership's perception there is no exotic feeling at all. It is quite obvious, that a source text reader does not feel any exotic in its own culture. On the contrary, e.g. the peculiarities of Russian culture and/or language, like vodka, samovar, matryoshka, etc. are perceived by Russian readership as ‘something domestic'. Consequently, the exotic feeling should not be preserved, but should be generated by translation operations. This entails that Nida's idea of dynamic equivalence ("identical target text reader's reaction") does not apply. According to translation adequacy, culture-bound words need to be felt ‘domestic' by source text readers, and ‘exotic' by target text readers. It depends on the translator's decision, whether or not between domestication and foreignization an acceptable balance would be reached.

"In any translation project, the initial decision between domesticating and foreignizing strategies affects the whole translation process, leading either to a target text that is easily recognizable and thus readily accessible to the readers, or to a text that constantly reminds them of cultural difference. (...) Such strategies may, however, have unwanted side effects (bolds are mine - E. L.), as resulting images images of the source culture may be distorted, with debatable ethical consequences" (Lindfors 1).

We, therefore, suggest that the degree of shared knowledge between the assumed source- and target-text readers needs to be established. Translation traditions have norms (prescriptions), whereas new challenges require creativity (recommendations). Seeking the compromise between faithfulness and freedom is crucial, as the translator has to meet the target reader's expectations, and to avoid inappropriate connotations.

Since Anton Chekhov's "Death of a clerk" is a well known masterpiece of world literature, we limit ourselves to a short overview of the plot. Ivan Dmitrich Chervyakov, the Russian man-in-the-street's story takes place at the end of the 19 century in Russia. In the theatre Chervyakov sneezes at Civil General, a wealthy and influential person. He apologises but it seems to him, that the General did accept his apology. In the interval he apologises once again. Since nothing changes, on the next day he goes to the General's reception to explain the situation once again. The same story happens and the General gets really angry and turns the clerk out of doors. Chervyakov is so shocked that he goes home and dies.

 

Table 4

 

CBU	Transliteration	Interpretation
Realia
экзекутор	eksekutor	In tsarist Russia: low-ranking clerk, who has the care of an institution
Иван	Ivan	Stereotype name: ‘the average Russian man'
Дмитрич	Dmitrich	(Familiar) short form of Dmitrievich
Червяков	Chervyakov	Telling name, from chervyak - ‘worm'
полицеймейстер	politseymeyster	In tsarist Russia: chief of city police
тайный советник	taynyj sovetnik	Lit. ‘secret adviser' - Privy Councillor; in tsarist Russia: high-ranking official
статский генерал	statskij general	Lit. ‘state general'; in tsarist Russia: high-ranking civil service official
Бризжалов	Brizzhalov	Telling name, from bryzgat' - ‘to spit'
вицмундир	Vitsmundir	In tsarist Russia: official frock-coat in civil service institutions
«Аркадия»	Arkadia	Name of a 19 century Moscow theatre
Мужик	Muzhik	Muzhik, (Russian) peasant
Ваше-ство	vashe-stvo	Short form of vashe prevoschoditel'stvo ‘your superiority' Sir, Your Excellency;  in tsarist Russia: greeting form of a high-ranking person
милостисдарь	Milostisdar'	Short form of milostivyj gosudar - ‘merciful sovereign'  Sir; in tsarist Russia: greeting form of a high-ranking person
чихнул-с	chichnul-s	(obsolete) short, polite form of chichnul, sudar' - sneezed, Sir
знать-с	znat'-s	(obsolete) short, polite form of  znat',  sudar - to know, Sir

 

            The culture-bound words in "Death of a clerk" can be divided into realia proper and quasi-realia. They play a significant role in the general message of the short story, and therefore need to be treated appropriately by the translator. The main opposition between telling names Chervyakov and Brizzhalov is of particular importance. It is Chervyakov, the "worm-man" who sneezes at Brizzhalov, the "man who is sneezed at" by the little man. Table 5. demonstrates the wide range of possibilities which were at the translator's disposal.

 

Table 5

 

CBU	Foreignisation	Neutralization	Domestication
Realia
экзекутор	eksekutor	clerk, warden	Janitor
Иван	Ivan	Ivan	John
Дмитрич	Dmitrich
Червяков	Chervyakov	Worm	Smith
полицеймейстер	Politseymeyster	Police superintendent	(US) chief of police
тайный советник	taynyj sovetnik	Secret adviser	Privy Councillor
статский генерал	statskij general	civil general	Councillor of State
Бризжалов	Brizzhalov	Spitter, Spitman	Spitter, Spitman
Вицмундир	vitsmundir	uniform, frock-coat
«Аркадия»	Arkadia	Arkadia
Quasi-realia
Мужик	muzhik	peasant, countryman	Farmer
Ваше-ство	vashe-stvo	Sir	Sir
Милостисдарь	milostisdar'	Sir	Sir
чихнул-с	chichnul-s	sneezed	sneezed, Sir
знать-с	znat'-s	to know	to know, Sir

 

Techniques of foreignization provide exotic feelings for the reader. By means of neutralisation this information vanishes. On the other hand, domestication will provide the effect of domestic feelings. Thus, the translator possesses unbelievable power. he can reach adequacy, but he also can create dangerous national stereotypes. This is what stresses the translator's ethical responsibility. The inferior sneezes at the superior, which gives the feeling of his virtual superiority. Chervyakov is some kind of a rebel, who becomes morally superior.

 

5.3. Techniques

 

            In literary translation translation techniques of realia are divided into (1) foreignization, (2). neutralization, (3). assimilation (domestication) and (4) combined techniques. In another approach, translation techniques, that serve strategic and tactic considerations, fall into metalinguistic (definition, paraphrase, apposition) and linguistic means of rendering (transcription, transliteration, substitution). Thus, there are four types of treatment of culture-bound words: foreignization, neutralization, assimilation (domestication) and balanced Translation (see table 6).

 

 

Table 6

(by Ivy Litvinov)

 

Realia	Types of reference	Devices of reference
экзекутор	Clerk	generalisation
Иван	Ivan	transliteration
Дмитрич	Dmitrich	transliteration
Червяков	Chervyakov	transliteration
полицеймейстер	police inspector	substitution
тайный советник	privy councillor	substitution
статский генерал	Civil General	loan-translation
Бризжалов	Brizhalov	transliteration (simplified)
вицмундир	official frock-coat	paraphrase
«Аркадия»	The Arkadia	transliteration
QUASI-REALIA
мужик	Peasant	translation
ваше-ство	Your Excellency	substitution
милостисдарь	Sir	substitution
чихнул-с	I er-sneezed	substitution
знать-с	Your Excellency	substitution, compensation

 

Generally speaking, Ivy Litvinov has made her duty appropriately. But it must be emphasized that the telling name Brizhalov should have been also footnoted, since this translation operation is able to demonstrate the double social opposition in Chekhov's masterpiece.

 

Realia	Foreignization	Neutralization	Domestication
экзекутор	eksekutor	clerk, warden	Janitor
Иван	Ivan	Ivan	John
Дмитрич	Dmitrich	-	-
Червяков	Chervyakov	Worm	Smith
полицеймейстер	Politseymeyster	Police superintendent	(US) chief of police
тайный советник	taynyj sovetnik	Secret adviser	Privy Councillor
статский генерал	statskij general	civil general	Councillor of State
Бризжалов	Brizzhalov	Spitter, Spitman	Spitter, Spitman
вицмундир	vitsmundir	uniform, frock-coat
«Аркадия»	Arkadia	Arkadia
мужик	muzhik	peasant, countryman	farmer
ваше-ство	vashe-stvo	Sir	Sir
милостисдарь	milostisdar'	Sir	Sir
чихнул-с	chichnul-s	sneezed	sneezed, Sir
знать-с	znat'-s	to know	to know, Sir

 

 

Balanced translation of realia (by Ivy Litvinov)

 

Russia realia	Translation into English	Translation techniques
экзекутор	Clerk	generalization (domestication)
Иван	Ivan	Transliteralisation (foreignization)
Дмитрич	Dmitrich	transliteration (foreignization)
Червяков	Chervyakov	transliteration (foreignization)
полицеймейстер	police inspector	substitution ( neutralisation)
тайный советник	privy councillor	substitution ( neutralisation)
статский генерал	Civil General	semantic calque (neutralisation)
Бризжалов	Brizhalov	transcription (foreignization)
вицмундир	official frock-coat	paraphrase ( neutralisation)
«Аркадия»	the Arkadia	transliteration (foreignization)
мужик	peasant	generalisation ( neutralisation)
ваше-ство	Your Excellency	substitution ( neutralisation)
милостисдарь	Sir	substitution ( neutralisation)
чихнул-с	I-- er-sneezed	substitution ( neutralisation)
знать-с	Your Excellency	substitution ( neutralisation)

 

5.4. Translating realia of „Death of a clerk" in context

 

В один прекрасный вечер не менее прекрасный экзекутор, Иван Дмитрич Червяков, сидел во втором ряду кресел и глядел в бинокль на «Корневильские колокола». * Egy kiváló szép estén a nem kevésbé kiváló Ivan Dmitrics Cservjakov, hagyatéki végrehajtó, a földszinti zsöllye második sorában ült, és látcsövén keresztül gyönyörködött a Corneville-i harangok-ban. * One fine evening, a no less fine government clerk called Ivan Dmitritch Tchervyakov was sitting in the second row of the stalls, gazing through an opera glass at the Cloches de Corneville.

Чихать никому и нигде не возбраняется. Чихают и мужики, и полицеймейстеры, и иногда даже и тайные советники. *  Tüsszenteni sehol senkinek sem tilos. Tüsszent a paraszt, tüsszent a rendőrkapitány, sőt, némelykor még a titkos tanácsos is. * Peasants sneeze and so do police superintendents, and sometimes even privy councillors.

В старичке Червяков узнал статского генерала Бризжалова, служащего по ведомству путей сообщения. * Az öregúrban Brizzsalov államtanácsost, a közlekedési minisztérium tábornoki rangban levő főtisztviselőjét ismerte fel.* In the old gentleman, Tchervyakov recognised Brizzhalov, a civilian general serving in the Department of Transport.

Червяков кашлянул, подался туловищем вперед и зашептал генералу на ухо: - Извините, ваше-ство, я вас обрызгал... я нечаянно... * Cservjakov köhécselt, felsőtestével előredőlt, és a tábornok fülébe súgta. - Bocsásson meg, az istenre kérem. Igazán nem... igazán nem akarattal!... * Tchervyakov gave a cough, bent his whole person forward, and whispered in the general's ear. "Pardon, your Excellency, I spattered you accidentally. . . ."

Червяков сконфузился, (...) В антракте он подошел к Бризжалову, (...) пробормотал: - Я вас обрызгал, ваше - ство... Простите... * Cservjakov még jobban zavarba esett, (...)  A szünetben odalépett Brizzsalovhoz, (...) megszólította: - Az imént leprüszköltem, mélts... uram... Bocsásson meg... * Tchervyakov was embarrassed, (...) In the interval, he went up to Brizzhalov, (...) muttered: "I spattered you, your Excellency, forgive me . . ."

Она [жена] только испугалась, а потом, когда узнала, что Бризжалов «чужой», успокоилась.* az asszony (...) előbb egy kissé megijedt, de amikor megtudta, hogy Brizzsalov más hivatalbeli, mindjárt megnyugodott. * she was a little frightened, but when she learned that Brizzhalov was in a different department, she was reassured.

На другой день Червяков надел новый вицмундир, постригся и пошел к Бризжалову объяснить... * Másnap Cservjakov felöltötte vadonatúj hivatali egyenruháját, megnyiratkozott, és elment Brizzsalovhoz, bocsánatot kérni. * Next day Tchervyakov put on a new uniform, (...) and went to Brizzhalov's to explain;

Придя машинально домой, не снимая вицмундира, он лег на диван и... помер. *  Gépiesen hazaért, a vadonatúj egyenruháját le sem vetve, végigfeküdt a díványon és... meghalt! * Reaching home mechanically, without taking off his uniform, he lay down on the sofa and died.

 

Conclusion

 

            As a concequence, we conclude that realia (culture-bound lexical units) neither literally, nor figuratively, are translatable. The phenomenon of „untranslatable" means rendering culture-bound lexical units by means of a specific set of translation devices. This set of translation devices comprises a rich collection of translation strategies, tactics and techniques, which are partly objective and partly subjective, underline and, by this reason, they underline the translator's responsibility.